Charles J. Billington, M.D.

Current Position (s): Professor, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota
Staff Physician, Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Minneapolis Veteran's Affairs Medical Center,
Director, Special Diagnostic and Treatment Unit, Minneapolis Veteran's Affairs Medical Center
Associate Director, Minnesota Obesity Center
Director, Observation Unit, Minneapolis Veteran's Affairs Medical Center
Medical Director, Ambulatory Evaluation Unit, Minneapolis Veteran's Affairs Medical Center
Chief, Subspecialty Medicine Clinic, Minneapolis Veteran's Affairs Medical Center

Research Interests and areas of potential collaboration:

Selected publications:

1. Billington CJ, Casciato DA, Choquette DL, and Morley JE.  Artifactual hypogycemia associated with polycythemia vera.  JAMA 249: 774 - 775, 1983.

2. Simat BM, Mayrand RA, From AHL, Morley JE, Billington CJ, Fullerton DS, and Ahmed K.  Is the erythrocyte sodium pump altered in human obesity?  J Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 56: 925 - 929, 1983.

3. Billington CJ, Levine AS, and Morley JE.  Are peptides truly satiety agents? a method of testing for neurohumoral satiety effects. Am. J. Physiol. 245: R920 - R926, 1983.

4. Morley JE, Levine AS, Kneip J, Grace M, and Billington CJ.  Effect of peripherally administered satiety substances on feeding induced by butorphanol tartrate.  Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 19: 577 - 582, 1983.

5. Morley JE, Levine AS, Gosnell BA, and Billington CJ.  Which opiate receptor mechanism modulates feeding?  Appetite 6: 61 - 68, 1984.

6. Billington, CJ, Morley JE, Levine AS, and Gerritsen GC.  Feeding systems in Chinese hamsters.  Am. J. Physiol. 247: R405 - R411, 1984.

7. Morley JE, Krahn, DD, Gosnell BA, Billington CJ, and Levine AS. Interrelationships between calcitonin and other modulators of feeding behavior.  Pyschopharmacol. Bull. 20: 463 - 465, 1984.

8. Nuttall FQ, Mooradian AD, Gannon MC, Billington CJ, and Krezowski PA.  Effect of protein ingestion on the glucose and insulin response to a standardized oral glucose load.  Diabetes Care 7: 465 - 470, 1984.

9. Mooradian AD, Morley JE, Billington CJ, Slag MF, Elson MK, and Shafer RB.  Hyperprolactin-emia in male diabetics.  Postgrad. Med. J. 61:11 - 14, 1985.

10. Billington CJ, Morley JE, Levine AS, Wright F, and Seal US.  Naloxone induced suppression of feeding in tigers. Physiol. Behav. 34: 641 - 643, 1985.

11. Levine AS, Morley JE, Gosnell BA, Billington CJ, and Bartness TJ. Opioids and consummatory behavior.  Brain Res. Bull. 14: 663 - 672, 1985.

12. Morley JE, Kay NE, Allen JI, Moon T, and Billington CJ.  Endorphins, immune function, and cancer.  Psychopharmacol. Bull. 21(3): 485 - 488, 1985.

13. Gannon MC, Nuttall FQ, Krezowski PA, Billington CJ, and Parker S.  The insulin  and glucose responses to milk and fruit products in type II diabetics. Diabetalogia  29:784 - 791, 1986.

14. Bartness TJ, Billington CJ, Levine AS, Morley JE, Brown DM, and Rowland NE. Insulin and metabolic efficiency in rats.  I.  Effects of sucrose feeding and BAT axotomy.  Am. J. Physiol. 251:R1109 - R1117, 1986.

15. Bartness TJ, Billington CJ, Levine AS, Morley JE, Rowland NE, and Brown DM .  Insulin-induced changes in the efficiency of body weight gain in rats. II:  Effects of NE and cold exposure.  Am. J. Physiol. 251:R1118 - R1125, 1986.

16. Billington CJ, Bartness TJ, Briggs J, Levine AS, and Morley JE.  Glucagon stimulation of brown adipose tissue growth and thermogenesis. Am J. Physiol.  252:R160 - R165, 1987.

17. Krezowski PA, Nuttall FQ, Gannon MC, Billington CJ, and Parker S.  The insulin and glucose responses to various starch containing foods in type II diabetics. Diabetes Care 10:205 - 212, 1987.

18. Gannon MC, Nuttall FQ, Krezowski PA, Billington CJ, Parker S.  The effects of milk and fruit products on the postprandial serum insulin and glucose responses in type II (non-insulin dependent) diabetic subjects, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Diet and Nutrition, 1988.

19. Levine AS, Grace M, Billington CJ, Gosnell BA, Krahn DD, Brown DM, and Morley JE.  Effect of morphine and nalmefene on energy balance in diabetic and non-diabetic rats.  Pharmacol Biochem Behav  29: 495 - 500, 1988.

20. Levine AS, Grace M, Krahn DD, and Billington CJ. The adenosine agonist n6-R-phenylisopropyl-adenosine (R-PIA) stimulates feeding in rats.  Brain Research 477:280 - 285, 1989.

21. Gosnell BA, Grace M, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Effects of streptozotocin-induced diabetes on feeding stimulated by centrally administered opoid agonists. Life Sciences, 45: 31 - 40, 1989.

22. Nizielski SE, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Effect of hibernation and arousal on brown adipose tissue GDP binding and circulating metabolites in 13-lined ground squirrels.  Am J Physiol, 257: R536 - R541, 1989.

23. Levine AS, Tallman JR, Grace MK, Parker SA, Billington CJ, and Levitt MD.  Effect of breakfast cereals on short-term food intake.  Am J Clin Nutr  50(6): 1303 - 1307, 1989.

24. Levine AS, Grace M, and Billington CJ. The effect of centrally administered naloxone on deprivation and drug-induce feeding.  Pharmacol Biochem Behav 36(2): 409 - 412, 1989.

25. Billington CJ, Shafer RB, and Morley JE.  Efects of opioid blockade with nalmefene in older impotent men.  Life Sciences 47(9): 799 - 805, 1990.

26. Billington CJ, Herman BH, Bartness TJ, Levine AS, and Morley JE.  A comparison of the effects of the opiate antagonists diprenorphine and naloxone and of selected opiate agonists on feeding behavior in guinea pigs.  Life Sciences 46(2): 147 - 154, 1990

27. Levine AS, Grace M, and Billington CJ.  The effect of centrally administered naloxone on deprivation and drug-induced feeding.  Pharmacol Biochem Behav  36(2): 409 - 412, 1990.

28. Levine AS, Grace M, Billington CJ, and Portoghese PS.  Nor-binaltorphimine decreases deprivation and opioid-induced feeding.  Brain Research 534: 60 - 64, 1990.

29. Billington CJ, Briggs JE, Grace M, and Levine AS.  Effects of intracerebroventricular injection of neuropeptide Y on energy metabolism.  Am J Physiol 260: R321 - R327, 1991.

30. Levine AS, Kuskowski MA, Grace M, and Billington CJ.  Food deprivation-induced versus drug-induced feeding: a behavioral evaluation.  Am J Physiol 260: R546 - R552, 1991.

31. Billington CJ, Briggs JE, Link JG, and Levine AS.  Glucagon in physiological concentrations stimulates brown fat thermogenesis in vivo.  Am J Physiol 261: R501 - R507, 1991. 

32. Levine AS, Grace M, and Billington CJ.  Beta-funaltrexamine (·-FNA) decreases deprivation and opioid -induced feeding.  Brain Research 562:281-284, 1991.

33. Levine AS, Grace M, and Billington CJ, and Zimmerman DM.  Central administration of opioid antagonist LY255582 decreases short and long term food intake in rats.  Brain Research 566:193-197, 1991.

34. Rudski JM, Schaal DW, Thompson T, Cleary J, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Effects of methadone on free feeding in satiated rats.  Pharmacol Biochem Behav 43: 1033-1037,1992.

35. Nizielski SE, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Lactation induced regression of brown adipose tissue thermogenic capacity.  Am J Physiol 264: R16 - R21, 1993.

36. Dysken MW, Stare SS, Burke MS, Mach JR Jr, Galka T, and Billington CJ.  Intrasubject reproducibility of GHRH stimulated GH in older women, older men, and younger men, Biological Psychiatry 33:610-617,1993.

37. Lynch WC, Grace MK, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Effects of Neuropeptide Y on ingestion of flavored solutions in nondeprived rats.  Physiology and Behavior 54(5): 877-880, 1993.

38. Giraudo SQ, Grace MK, Welch CC, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Naloxone's anorectic effect is dependent upon the relative palatability of food.  Pharmacol Biochem and Behav 46: 917-921, 1993.

39. Kotz CM, Grace MK, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  The effect of norbinaltorphimine, ·-funaltrexamine and naltrindole on NPY-induced feeding.  Brain Research 631:325-328, 1993.

40. Schuh KJ, Schaal DW, Thompson T, Cleary JP, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Insulin, 2-deoxy -d-glucose, and food deprivation as disciminitive stimuli in rats.  Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 46(2): 317-324, 1994.

41. Rudski JM, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Butorphanol increases food reinforcement operant responding in satiated rats.  Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 49(4):843-847, 1994.

42. Levine AS, Grace M, Portoghese PS, and Billington CJ.  The effect of selective opioid antagonists on butorphanol-induced feeding.  Brain Research 631:242-248, 1994.

43. Welch CC, Grace MK, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Preference and diet type affect macronutrient selection after morphine, NPY, norepinephrine, and deprivation.  Am J Physiol 266:R426-R433, 1994.

44. Giraudo SQ, Kotz CM, Grace MK, Levine AS, and Billington CJ.  Rat hypothalamic NPY mRNA and brown fat UCP mRNA after high-carbohydrate or high-fat diets.  Am J Physiol 266:R1578-R1583, 1994.

45. Iwanij V, Amos TM, and Billington CJ.  Identification and characterization of the glucagon receptor from adipose tissue.  Mol Cell Endocrinol 101(1-2):257-261, 1994.

46. Billington CJ, Briggs JE, Grace MK, Harker S, and Levine AS.  Neuropeptide Y stimulation of paraventricular nucleus of hypthalamus: evidence for a center coordinating thermogenesis and food intake. Am J Physiol 266:R1765-R1770, 1994.

47. Rudski JM, Schall DW, Thompson T, Cleary J, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Methadone and feeding: Sources of differences between home cage and operant chamber assessment procedures.  Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 49:143-146, 1994.

48. Rudski JM, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Naloxone's effects on operant responding depend upon level of deprivation.  Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 49:377-83, 1994.

49. Rudski JM, Thomnas D, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Buprenorphine increases intake of freely available and operant-contingent food in satiated rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 50:271-276, 1995.

50. Levine AS, Weldon DT, Grace M, Cleary JP, and Billington CJ.  Naloxone blocks that portion of feeding driven by sweet taste in food restricted rats.  American Journal of Physiology 268:R248-R252, 1995.

51. Kotz CM, Grace MK, Briggs JE, Levine AS, and Billington CJ.  Effect of opioid antagonists naloxone and naltrexone on neuropeptide Y-induced feeding and brown fat thermogenesis in the rat: neural site of action.  Journal of Clinical Investigation 96:163-170, 1995.

52. Nizielski SE, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Cold induced alterations in uncoupling protein and its mRNA are seasonally dependent in ground squirrels.  Am J Physiol 269:R357-64, 1995.

53. Weldon DT, O'Hare E, Cleary J, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Effect of naloxone on intake of corn starch, sucrose and polycose diets in deprived and non-deprived rats. Am J Physiol 270:R1183-8, 1996.

54. Kotz CM, Grace MK, Briggs J, Billington CJ and Levine AS.  Naltrexone induces arcuate nucleus neuropeptide Y gene expression in the rat.  Am J Physiol 271:R289-294, 1996.

55. Glass MJ, Grace M, Cleary JP, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Potency of naloxone's anorectic effect in rats is dependent on diet preference.  Am J Physiol 271: R217-21, 1996.

56. Kim EM, Welch CC, Grace MK, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Chronic food restriction and acute food deprivation decrease mRNA levels of opioid peptides in arcuate nucleus. Am J Physiol 270:R1019-1024, 1996.

57. Rudski JM, Grace M, Kuskowski MA, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Behavioral effects of naloxone on neuropeptide Y induced feeding.  Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav 54:771-777, 1996.

58. Welch CC, Kim EM, Grace MK, Billington CJ, and Levine AS. Palatibility-induced hyperphagia increases hypothalmic dynorphin peptide and mRNA levels. Brain Research 721:126-131, 1996.

59. Pomonis JD, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Orphanin FQ, agonist of the orphan opioid receptor ORL1, stimulates feeding in rats.  NeuroReport 8:369-371, 1996.

60. Cleary J, Weldon DT, O'Hare E, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Naloxone effects on sucrose motivated behavior.  Psychopharmacology 126:110-4, 1996.

61. Sorensen SE, Billington CJ, Smith SA, Briggs JE, Reding MT, and Filice GA.  Metabolism of intracellular toxoplasma gondii is affected by host cell ATP production.  Experimental Parasitology 85:101-104, 1997.

62. Kotz CM, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Opioids in the nucleus of the solitary tract are involved in feeding in the rat.  Am J Physiol 272:R1028-32, 1997.

63. O'Hare E, Cleary J, Bartz PJ, Weldon DT, Billington CJ, and Levine AS. Naloxone administration following operant training of sucrose/water discrimination in the rat.  Psychopharmacology 129:289-94, 1997.

64. Kotz, CM, Levine AS and Billington CJ. Effect of Naltrexone on Feeding, Neuropeptide Y and Uncoupling Protein Gene Expression During Lactation. Neuroendocrinology 65:259-64, 1997.

65. Pomonis JD, Levine AS, and Billington CJ.  Interaction of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and central nucleus of the amygdala in blockade of neuropeptide Y induced feeding revealed by c-fos expression. Journal of Neuroscience, 17:5175-5182, 1997.

66. Rudski JM, Billington CJ, Levine AS.  A sucrose-based maintenance diet increases sensitivity to appetite suppressant effects of naloxone. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav 58:679-82, 1997. 

67. Glass MJ, Cleary JP, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Role of carbohydrate type on diet selection in neuropeptide-Y stimulated rats.  Am J Physiol 273:R2040-5, 1997.

68. Kim EM, Kotz CM, Welch CC, Grace MK, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Lactation decreases mRNA levels of opioid peptides in the arcuate nucleus of the rat.  Brain Research 769:303-8, 1997.

69. O'Hare E, Cleary J, Weldon DT, Pomonis JD, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Intrahypothalamic discriminitive stimulus effects of neuropeptide Y. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav 59:375-8, 1998.

70. Giraudo SQ, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Effects of the opioid antagonist naltrexone on feeding induced by DAMGO in the central nucleus of the amygdala and in the paraventricular nucleus of the rat.  Brain Research 782:18-23, 1998.

71. Kotz CM, Briggs JE, Grace MK, Levine AS, and Billington CJ.  Divergence of the feeding and thermogenic pathways influenced by NPY in the hypothalamic PVN of the rat. American Journal of Physiology 275:R471-477, 1998.

72. Kotz CM, Briggs JE, Pomonis JD, Grace MK, Levine AS, and Billington CJ.  Neural site of leptin influence on neuropeptide Y signaling pathways altering feeding and uncoupling protein.  American Journal of Physiology  275:R478- 484, 1998.

73. Giraudo SQ, Kotz CM, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Association between the amygdala and nucleus of the solitary tract in mu opioid feeding in the rat.  Brain Research 802:184-188, 1998.

74. Giraudo SQ, Kim EM, Grace MK, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Effect of peripheral 2-DG on opioid and neuropeptide Y gene expression.  Brain Research 792(1): 136-40, 1998.

75. Filice GA, McDougall BC, Ercan-Fang N, and Billington CJ.  Neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with olanzapine.  Annals of Pharmacotherapy 32:1158-59, 1998.

76. Kim EM, Welch CC, Grace MK, Billington CJ, Levine AS.  Effects of palatability-induced hyperphagia and food restriction on mRNA levels of neuropeptide-Y in the arcuate nucleus.  Brain Research 806(1):117-21,1998

77. Giraudo SQ, Kotz CM, Billington CJ, Levine AS.  Association between the amygdala and nucleus of the solitary tract in mu-opioid induced feeding in the rat. Brain Research 802(1-2):184-8, 1998

78. Giraudo SQ, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Feeding effects of hypothalamic injection of melanocortin 4 receptor ligands.  Brain Research 809(2): 302-6, 1998.

79. Sweet DC, Levine AS, Billington CJ, and Kotz CM.  Site specific feeding responses to the orexins. Brain Research 821(2): 535-8, 1998.

80. Arbisi PA, Billington CJ, Levine AS.  The effect of naltrexone on taste detection and recognition threshold. Appetite 32(2): 241-9, 1999.

81. Glass MJ, O'Hare E, Cleary JP, Billington CJ, Levine AS.  The effect of naloxone on food-motivated behavior in the obese Zucker rat. Psychopharmacology 141(4): 378-84, 1999.

82. Abid M, Billington CJ, Nuttall FQ.  Thyroid function and energy intake during weight gain following treatment of hyperthyroidism. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 18(2): 189-93, 1999.

83. Kim EM, Grace MK, Welch CC, Billington CJ, Levine AS.  STZ-induced diabetes decreases and insulin normalizes POMC mRNA in arcuate nucleus and pituitary in rats. American Journal of Physiology 276(5 Pt 2): R1320-6, 1999.

84. Giraudo SQ, Grace MK, Billington CJ, Levine AS.  Differential effects of neuropeptide Y and the mu-agonist DAMGO on 'palatability' vs. 'energy'. Brain Research 834(1-2):160-3, 1999.

85. Glass MJ, Billington CJ, Levine AS. Role of lipid type on morphine-stimulated diet selection in rats. American Journal of Physiology 277(5 Pt 2):R1345-50, 1999.

86. Cleary JP, O'Hare E, Pomonis JD, Dittel PL, Hofmeister JJ, Fritz MM, Billington CJ, Levine AS. Discriminative stimulus effects of morphine: central versus peripheral training. Brain Research 847(1):26-31, 1999.

87. Olszewski PK, Billington CJ, Levine AS.  Fos expression in feeding-related brain areas following intracerebroventricular administration of orphanin FQ in rats. Brain Research 855(1): 171-5, 2000.

88. Glass MJ, Billington CJ, Levine AS. Naltrexone administered to central nucleus of amygdala or PVN: neural dissociation of diet and energy. American Journal of Physiology 279(1):R86-92, 2000.

89. Kim EM, O'Hare E, Grace MK, Welch CC, Billington CJ, Levine AS. ARC POMC mRNA and PVN alpha-MSH are lower in obese relative to lean zucker rats. Brain Research 862(1-2): 11-6, 2000.

90. Kotz CM, Glass MJ, Levine AS, and Billington CJ.  Regional effect of naltrexone in the nucleus of the solitary tract in blockade of neuropeptide Y induced feeding.  American Journal of Physiology 278: R499-503, 2000.

91. Kotz CM, Wang CF, Briggs JE, Levine AS, and Billington CJ.  Effect of neuropeptide Y in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus on uncoupling proteins 1, 2, and 3 in the rat.  American Journal of Physiology 278:R494-498, 2000.

92. Olszewski PK, Shaw TJ, Grace MK, Billington CJ, Levine AS. Nocistatin inhibits food intake in rats. Brain Research 872(1-2):181-7, 2000.

93. Olszewski PK, Grace MK, Billington CJ, Levine AS. The effect of [Phe(1)psi(CH(2)-NH)Gly(2)]-nociceptin(1-13)NH(2) on feeding and c-Fos immunoreactivity in selected brain sites. Brain Research 876(1-2):95-102, 2000.

94. Olszewski PK, Shi Q, Billington CJ, Levine AS.  Opioids affect acquisition of LiCl-induced conditioned taste aversion: involvement of OT and VP systems American Journal of Physiology 279(4): R1504-11, 2000.

95. Pomonis JD, Jewett DC, Kotz CM, Briggs JE, Billington CJ and Levine AS.  Sucrose consumption increases naloxone-induced c-Fos immunoreactivity in limbic forebrain.  American Journal of Physiology 278(3): R712-R719, 2000.

96. Mullett MA, Billington CJ, Levine AS, and Kotz CM. Hypocretin 1 in the lateral hypothalamus activates key feeding-regulatory sites.  NeuroReport 11:103-108, 2000.

97. Wang CF, Billington CJ, Levine AS, and Kotz CM. Effect of CART in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus on feeding and uncoupling protein gene expression.  NeuroReport, 11:3251-3255, 2000.

98. Wang C, Mullet MA, Glass MJ, Billington CJ, Levine AS, Kotz CM. Feeding inhibition by urocortin in the rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus. American Journal of Physiology 280(2):R473-80, 2001.

99. Kim EM, Shi Q, Olszewski PK, Grace MK, O'Hare E, Billington CJ, Levine AS. Identification of central sites involved in butorphanol-induced feeding in rats. Brain Research 907(1-2): 125-9, 2001.

100. Olszewski PK, Wirth MM, Shaw TJ, Grace MK, Billington CJ, Giraudo SQ, Levine AS. Role of alpha-MSH in the regulation of consummatory behavior: immunohistochemical evidence American Journal of Physiology 281(2): R673-80, 2001.

101. Jewett DC, Grace MK, Jones RM, Billington CJ, Portoghese PS, and Levine AS. The kappa-opioid antagonist GNTI reduces U50,488-, DAMGO-, and deprivation-induced feeding, but not butorphanol- and neuropeptide Y-induced feeding in rats. Brain Research 909(1-2):75-80, 2001.

Reviews

1. Morley, JE, Levine AS, Gosnell BA, and Billington CJ.  Neuropeptides and appetite: the contribution of neuropharmacological modeling. Federation Proceedings. 43: 2903 - 7, 1984.

2. Levine AS, Morley JE, Gosnell BA, Billington CJ, and Krahn DD. Neuropeptides as regulators of consummatory behaviors. Journal of Nutrition  116:2067 - 2077, 1986.

3. Skare SS, Dysken MW, and Billington CJ.  A review of the GHRH stimulation test in psychiatry.  Biological Psychiatry 36:249-265, 1994.

4. National Task Force on Prevention and Treatment of Obesity. Overweight, obesity and health risk. Archives of Internal Medicine 160:898-904, 2000.

5. National Task Force on Prevention and Treatment of Obesity. Dieting and development of eating disorders in overweight and obese adults. Archives of Internal Medicine, in press, 2001.

Invited Reviews

1. Levine AS and Billington CJ. Opioids: are they regulators of feeding?  Annals of the New York Academy of  Sciences, 575: 209-220, 1990.

2. Billington CJ and Levine AS.   Hypothalamic NPYergic Regulation of Feeding and Energy Metabolism. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 2:847-851, 1992.

3. Billington CJ and Levine AS.  Appetite regulation: shedding new light on obesity.  Current Biology 6:920-923, 1996.

4. Levine AS and Billington CJ.  Why do we eat? A neural systems approach.  Annual Review of Nutrition 17:597-619, 1997.

5. Levine AS and Billington CJ.  Obesity: Progress through genetic manipulation.  Current Biology 8:251-2, 1998.

6. Levine AS and Billington CJ.  Do circulating leptin concentrations reflect body adiposity or energy flux?  (editorial) American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68:761-2, 1998.

7. Kotz CM, Billington CJ, Levine AS. Obesity and aging.  Clinics in Geriatric Medicine 15(2): 391-412, 1999.

8. Glass MJ, Billington CJ, Levine AS. Opioids and food intake: distributed functional neural pathways? Neuropeptides 33(5): 360-8, 1999.

9. Billington CJ.  The challenge of obesity management in primary care. Journal of the American Board of Family Practice 13(3): 222-3, 2000.

Book Chapters:

1. Morley JE, Levine AS, Nizielski SE, Gosnell BA, Plotka ED, Billington CJ, and Seal US. Species diversity and opioid feeding systems.  In:  Frontiers in Neuroscience: Central and Peripheral Endorphins,  Raven Press: New York, pp. 279-284, 1984.

2.  Morley JE, Levine AS, Gosnell BA, Billington CJ, and Krahn DD. Control of Food Intake.  In: Neuroendocrine Perspectives  ( RM McLeod and E Mueller, eds.), Elsevier Biomedical Press, pp. l45-l90, 1985.

3.  Morley JE, and Billington CJ.  Peptides and brain pathology.  In: Handbook of Neurochemistry, vol. 10,  ( Abel Lajtha, ed.), Plenum Publishing: New York, pp. 43-66, 1985.

4.   Levine AS, Morley JE, Nizielski SE, Plotka ED, Gosnell BA, Billington CJ, and Seal US.  Species diversity in opioid feeding systems.  In: Recent Advances in Obesity Resarch: IV ,  (J Hirsch and T van Itallie, eds.), John Libbey and Co., Ltd., England, pp. 65-70, 1985.

5.  Levine AS, Morley JE, Billington CJ, Krahn DD, and Gosnell BA.  Peptidergic control of food intake.  In:  Biological Psychiatry  l985  (C Shagass, R Josiassen, WH Bridger, K Weiss, D Stoff and GM Simpson, Eds.), Elsevier Science Publishing Co.,1985.

6.   Levine AS and Billington CJ. Stress and consummatory behaviors. In Neuropeptides and Stress (Tache Y, ed.), Springer-Verlag Publishers: New York, 1988.

7. Billington CJ, Shafer RB, Krezowski PA, Levine AS, and Morley JE.  Zinc status and Impotence.  in Geriatric Nutrition  (Morley JE, Glick Z, and Rubenstein L, eds.), Raven Press: New York,  pp. 441-446, 1990.

8. Levine AS and Billington CJ.  Stress, Peptides, and Regulation of Ingestive Behavior.  In Stress, Neuropeptides, and Systemic Disease (McCubbin JA, Kaufmann PG, and Nemeroff CB, eds.), Orlando, Fla: Academic Press, 1991.

9. Levine AS and Billington CJ.  Selected criteria for peptides as regulators of feeding: an overview. In The Science of Food Regulation, Vol 2: Food intake , Taste, Nutrient Partioning, and Energy Expenditure  (Bray GA and Ryan DH, eds.), Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992.

10. Levine AS and Billington CJ.  Dietary Fiber: Does it affect food intake and body weight?  In: Appetite and Body  Weight Regulation, Fernstrom JD and Miller GD (eds) CRC Press, New York, 1994.

11. Levine AS and Billington CJ.  Peptides in regulation of energy metabolism and body weight.  In: Regulation of Body Weight: Biological and Behavioral Mechanisms, Bouchard C and Bray GA (eds) Wiley and Sons Ltd, New York, pp 179-191, 1996.

12. Billington CJ.  Obesity. In: Endocrine and Reproductive Pathophysiology.  Niewoehner CB, ed. Fence Creek Publishing, LLC, 1997.

13. Billington CJ.  Male Reproductive Endocrinology. In: Endocrine and Reproductive Pathophysiology.  Niewoehner CB, ed. Fence Creek Publishing, LLC, 1997.

14. Glass MJ, Billington CJ, and Levine AS.  Opioids, Food Reward, and Macronutrient Selection. In: Neural and Metabolic Control of Macronutrient Intake. (Berthoud H-R and Seeley RJ, eds.), CRC Press, New York, 1999.